With his Bayreuth theatre, did Richard Wagner anticipate cinema? Often compared to the Wagnerian Gesamkunstwerk on the strength of its all-embracing dimension, the art of cinema has regularly drawn on the unequalled musical and dramatic substance ofThe Ring of the Nibelung.

“The most famous, the most performed, the most thrilling, and the most recorded opera cycle”: these eulogistic words are from a promotional text for the video release of Richard Wagner’sThe Ring of the Nibelung by the Metropolitan Opera of New York (2010 – 2012). This same text boasts, amongst other things, of the hundreds of thousands of people that watched performances of the Ring Cycle, not only at the Met., but above all in cinemas the world over, via satellite broadcast^[1]. This emphasis on a technological dissemination of Wagnerian opera harks back to one of the objectives of the earliest promoters of the audio-visual industries. Indeed, from the period of the pioneer Thomas Alva Edison at the end of the 19^th century onwards, the eventual possibility of linking up the apparatus for recording both sound and image had nourished the dream of offering remote populations the most spectacular of urban entertainments. As for the public demonstration on 6^th August 1926 of Vitaphone’s motion picture sound process, it took place exactly fifty years after the first performancein 1876 of the complete Ring cycle for the inauguration of the Festpielhaus in Bayreuth. The specific arrangements of the Wagnerian stage (darkness, a concealed orchestra, the focus on the “stage image”, the illusion of depth by the bringing forward of the proscenium...) prefigure certain characteristics of the cinema auditorium equipped with loud-speakers.
This vision of Wagner as a prophet of cinema^[2]has influenced aesthetic reflections on the filmic medium. Such reflections have been inspired by the concept of the Gesamkunstwerk, as it is presented in Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft(The Artwork of the Future) (1849) or Oper und Drama(Opera and Drama) (1851), to signal the emergence at the heart of technical and scientific modernity of a great “synthetic theatre”, bringing about a “renaissance of Tragedy”^[3]. Echoing the frustration experienced by Nietzsche regarding the staging of TheRing at Bayreuth^[4], as well as certain reservations on the part of the composer himself^[5], these theoreticians saw in cinema a way of overcoming the supposed limits of stage production. As the critic Emile Vuillermozclaimed in 1927, “... If he had been born fifty years later, Wagner would have written his Ring cycle not for the stage but for the screen. [...] If he had had free recourse to the prestigious resources of cinema, he would have built, not a theatre, but a cinema at Bayreuth.”^[6]The film-maker Abel Gance took a more ironic view: “A new formula for opera will be born. We will hear the singers without seeing them, oh joy, and the Ride of the Walkyries will be made feasible.”^[7] By this argument – still regularly put forward today in this numerical age – the techniques of cinema are capable of realising the slightest nuances of a dreaming poet-musician’s imagination, more particularly in the Ring cycle, underwater pursuits, air-born gallops, fantastic combats, beings that become invisible and the progressive transformations of the sets. But the cinema has above all furthered the ideal of dynamic stylisation which animated, at least with the work of AdolpheAppia onwards, the majority of renovators of the Wagnerian stage. As the experiments of a film-maker like S.M. Eisenstein (director of the 1940 Bolshoi Walküre and inventor of a “vertical” production closely linking musical and visual gestures) demonstrate, cinematic procedures aim to provide directors with a vast iconic palette, as subtle, malleable and poly-expressive as the music itself.

The model of Wagnerian opera profoundly inspired the codes of large-scale cinema productions, which were established during the silent movie period through showings using symphony orchestras. The release of Der Nibelungen(Fritz Lang, 1924) in this context represents a major event. Although far removed in conception from the Wagnerian version of the legend, the film’s early showings worldwide,which were accompanied by extracts borrowed from the Bayreuth master, made constant references to the Ring cycle. More generally, the symbiosis between drama and music, as championed by Wagner, occupied pride of place amongst narrative procedures that have continued to dominate, even today, the production of films. The use of leitmotif was thus imposed on the musical system established in Hollywood during the thirties and forties by composers emerging from European post-romantic culture (Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Max Steiner, Franz Waxman)^[8]. A French Wagner specialist and contemporary of these composers enthused over their work: “... anyone who wanted to analyse the Ring cycle bar by bar to compare it with such accomplished film scores [...] would no doubt be astonished to discover that Wagner’s music was, so to speak, written for the cinema”.

This alliance between artistic idealism and the cultural industry, as the more radical critics denounced it^[9], has manifested itself in contemporary blockbusters such as the Star Wars franchise (on-going since 1977) and, more directly still, Lord of the Rings (based on Tolkien, 2001-2003) that ally narrative breadth and large-scale spectacle. Not only do the internationally popular symphonic scores for these productions make thorough use of leitmotif, but their narratives draw on the mythological world already reinvented in The Ring of the Nibelung^[10].
This relationship between the mass media and the work of Wagner also appears in the fragmentation of the operas into individual numbers, that is, the selection from them of “greatest hits”, on the traditional model of concert arias or song anthologies. Numerous films have indeed had recourse to extracts from the Ringcycle in the most diverse contexts (from drama to cartoons, as well as burlesque, documentaries, science fiction etc.) in order to offer an epic or dramatic counterpoint to the visual action. A memorable shot from Birth (Jonathan Glazer 2004) testifies to this. The camera focusses at length on the face of the heroine (Nicole Kidman), who is watching a performance of Die Walküre. Although it echoes personal preoccupations that are completely divorced from the musical storm raging off camera, the tormented Prelude to act I is marvellously adapted to the expression of her inwardly troubled state.

The poignant, funereal harmonies relayed by the best-known passages of TheRing have for many years imposed a morbid vision of Wagner, stamped with a sombre solemnity. Whilst some have sought to appropriate this musical power, others have reduced it to swingeing ideological caricature, harking back unfailingly to Hitler’s infamous appropriation of Wagner. Thus Siegfried’s Trauermusikin Götterdämmerunghas been associated just as easily with the first leader of the Soviet Revolution in Three Songs about Lenin (D. Vertov, 1934), or with the Arthurian heroes of John Boorman’s 1981 Excalibur, as with the implacable attitude of the Nazi officers in American fiction from the forties onwards, in which intensive use is made of Siegfried’s leitmotif to qualify the German aggressor, particularly in the propaganda films of Frank Capra. Over and above their function in ridiculing the robust phenotype of Wagnerian heroines (from Bugs Bunny to Fellini), the rousing accents and galvanising virtues of the Ride of the Valkyries haspunctuated the cavalcade of the Ku Klux Klan in The Birth of a Nation (D. W. Griffith, 1915), then the German and Japanese air raids during Axis news footage during the Second World War, before culminating in a more ambiguous manner – the music being broadcast by the protagonists themselves – during the celebrated helicopter attack in Apocolypse Now (F. F. Coppola, 1979).

Over and above such totalitarian connotations, cinematic references to Wagner have also evoked the mythical backgrounds of his music dramas. More than anyone else, Jürgen Syberberg, in both his theoretical writings and his films, sought tirelessly to explore the multiple facets of the great composer in order to secure his redemption. His complex portraits of King Ludwig (1972) and of Hitler (1977) are peppered with extracts from the Ring Cycle illustrating as much the emphatic perversity of oppressive powers (the Funeral March from Siegfried, the Descent intoNibelheim...) as the resurgence of the romantic ideals perverted by the 3^rd Reich and by the materialism of capitalist societies (the abundantly lyrical finale of Götterdämmerung)^[11]. More recently, in The New World (Terrence Malick, 2007), the Prelude to Das Rhingoldsignalled the ambivalent attitude of the first settlers on American soil, ranging from romantic pantheism to the conquest of virgin territory. As for the Entrance of the Gods into Valhalla from the same opera, in Alien Covenant (Ridley Scott, 2017), it marks the triumph ofan artificial being’spretentionsto divine status of. All these instances demonstrate the extent to which TheRing remains influential in the troubled imagination of the 21^stcentury, whether to evoke the weight of history or to reflect on the stakes involved in an eminently technological future.

The characters in the Ring Cycle are primarily inspired from Medieval transcriptions of Norse and Germanic mythology, and more particularly from the 13^th century German saga The Nibelungenlied (The Song of the Nibelungs). As he developed the librettos of the four operas which make up The Ring of the Nibelung, Richard Wagner brought those legends and their variations closer to his other sources of inspiration—namely Greek tragedy and Shakespearian drama—and added his own interpretations.

Wagner retained seven gods from the pantheon of Norse mythology. These gods represent the highest order of beings in the universe. In Siegfried, where he appears as the Wanderer, Wotan describes his fellow deities as "light spirits who inhabit the cloudy heights ". Their mad quest for absolute power, represented by gold forged into a ring will lead them to their own destruction.

The god of the gods—Odin or Wotan, depending on Norse or Germanic mythology—is the god of the dead, victory and knowledge. Left blind in his left eye after he sacrificed it in exchange for knowledge, he can be identified by his spear and the presence of two crows at his side—Huginn and Muninn (who respectively embody “thought” and “memory”). These attributes are replicated in the character created by Wagner. Wotan appears as the archetypal man of power: insatiable, unscrupulous and hypocritical. He is the master of Valhalla, a castle fortress perched on top of the mountains; a dazzling manifestation of his power. His power over the world is based on laws and covenants which will progressively be undermined and erased. Throughout the libretto, his authoritarianism gives way to growing insecurity. The husband of Fricka, he is also the father of the Valkyries as well as of Siegmund and Sieglinde.

Loge, the demigod of fire, is an amalgam of two mythological figures: Logi and Loki. While both embody fire, the latter also personifies cunning and trickery. In the Ring cycle, Loge retains this duality: he appears as both the god of fire and Wotan’s masterly advisor ultimately enabling Wotan to take possession of the ring. He is also one of the rare characters who is truly free. He alone will be able to distance himself from the system that Wotan has created, and he alone will resist the lure of the ring. A calculating character, Loge takes pleasure in playing with the gods and he possesses a perceptiveness that his peers lack. Throughout the Ring cycle, he forsakes his human persona to appear in his elemental form: fire.

Fricka, the wife of Wotan and sister of Freia, Donner and Froh, is a divinity inspired by the goddess Frigg (or Frigga) from Norse mythology. In the Ring cycle she is the personification of lawfulness and fidelity. Tired of her husband’s infidelities, Fricka trys to make Wotan settle down and urges him to build Valhalla, a divine abode for them to live in. While Fricka is eager to defend the institution of marriage, she seeks above all to preserve the original values of divine society: respect for law and morality. In Die Walküre, she confronts Wotan with his own contradictions by reminding him that the guarantor of laws should not support Siegmund.  

Freyja is a key divinity of Norse and Germanic mythology. A creature of incredible beauty, she is the goddess of love and fertility. In the Ring cycle, Freia is the sister of Fricka. In Valhalla, the gods are blessed with eternal youth thanks to her cultivation of golden apples. Coveted by Fafner and Fasolt in Das Rheingold, Freia serves as a bargaining chip for Wotan who promises her to two giants in exchange for the construction of Valhalla. Without Freia, the gods find themselves deprived of their source of eternal youth and begin to waste away.

The personification of Strength and power, Thor (also known as Donner) is one of the most popular gods in Germanic mythology. His hallmark is his hammer which is the source of thunder and lightning. Present only in Das Rheingold, Donner nevertheless occupies a strategic place among the other characters. He embodies the figure of a military leader who thinks in warlike terms to counter the threat posed by Alberich. His hammer, evocative of violence, is a symbolic counterforce to the inherent lawfulness represented by Wotan's spear.  

Along with Odin and Thor, Freyr is one of the three major gods in Germanic mythology. The personification of fertility he is also the brother of Freyja. Known as Froh in the Ring cycle, he only appears in Das Rheingold. His perseverance in defending Freia and the words he has for her reflects the closeness of the two characters. 

Inspired by the goddesses Jördh and Gaia from Nordic and Greek mythology, Erda is the maternal god of the Earth. She is the personification of ancestral, intuitive and prophetic wisdom. A veritable Pythia, she can simultaneously see the past, the present and the future. As the mother of the Norns who spin the threads of fate, she holds universal knowledge. In Das Rheingold, she arouses doubt and anxiety in Wotan by warning him that his thirst for power risks provoking his own demise. By begetting Brünnhilde with the latter, she gives life to the woman who will save the universe. In Siegfried, Wotan, in the guise of the Wanderer, calls on Erda one last time in a scene that seals their antagonisms.    

The characters in the Ring Cycle are primarily inspired from Medieval transcriptions of Norse and Germanic mythology, and more particularly from the 13^th century German saga The Nibelungenlied (The Song of the Nibelungs). As he developed the librettos of the four operas which make up The Ring of the Nibelung, Richard Wagner brought those legends and their variations closer to his other sources of inspiration—namely Greek tragedy and Shakespearian drama—and added his own interpretations.

In Norse mythology, the albes are a race apart from men, gods and giants. They are divided into two distinct species, the quasi-angelic albes of light, and the quasi-demonic black albes. In Germanic legend, the were called the Nibelungen, a name that means “those from the world below”. These denizens of the Nibelheim or underworld work as craftsmen or blacksmiths and possess great wealth. In the Ring cycle, the Nibelungen are portrayed as jealous, cunning, ambitious creatures, fundamentally hostile to the gods. 

In the Ring cycle, Alberich is the one through whom misfortune manifests itself. He is dubbed the “black albe”. He dreams of conquering the world, renouncing love and cursing the one who gains possession of the ring which he forged. Associated with the gold he stole in Das Rheingold, Alberich’s power is utterly lawless and built on theft. 

Mime is Alberich’s brother and Siegfried’s adoptive father. In the Ring cycle, he represents permanent failure. Aware of the powers of the sword Nothung, and recognising the fact that only he who forged it will be capable of seizing the ring and the Tarnhelm which are held by the giant Fafner, he seeks in vain to restore it to its original form. Siegfried manages to reforge his father’s sword and recover the treasure, but he knows he is threatened with death by Mime. However, the latter is ultimately killed by the hero. 

Hagen is one of the principal heroes of The Song of The Nibelungen. Motivated by moral values, this Medieval character becomes a manipulator and a cynic under Wagner. The son of Alberich and half-brother to Gunther and Gutrune, he represents in his father’s eyes the primary means of recovering the lost ring. His Machiavellian nature allows him to gain the upper hand over the other characters in Götterdämmerung. He manipulates Gunther and Gutrune and tricks Siegfried in order to kill him.

In Norse mythology, the giants are the ones who created the world and are frequently at war with the gods. To a large extent, they represent the forces of chaos. Using magic, cunning and physical force, they try to change the order of the universe. In medieval literature, they assumed the disposition of ugly and stupid characters often driven by bad intentions, as is the case in the Ring cycle.

Regarding the two giants in the cycle, Fasolt comes across as “the most docile”. In Das Rheingold, unlike his brother Fafner, Fasolt does not look upon Freia as a bargaining chip to seize control of Valhalla. He sincerely loves her. The motives of the two brothers are different: Fafner has political aims whereas Fasolt has a far more discreet temperament. Through their relationship, the conflict between love and power assumes all its significance.

Of the two giants, Fafner stands out as “the malicious one”. Ever hungry for wealth, he is the first to react when he learns of the theft of the gold and the power of the ring. In his attempts to obtain the latter, he does not hesitate to murder his brother. In Siegfried, with the help of the Tarnhelm, the magic helmet, he morphs into a dragon and spends his days sleeping on his gold. He will ultimately be slain in his cave by Siegfried.

The characters in the Ring Cycle are primarily inspired from Medieval transcriptions of Norse and Germanic mythology, and more particularly from the 13^th century German saga The Nibelungenlied (The Song of the Nibelungs). As he developed the librettos of the four operas which make up The Ring of the Nibelung, Richard Wagner brought those legends and their variations closer to his other sources of inspiration—namely Greek tragedy and Shakespearian drama—and added his own interpretations.

In Norse mythology, the Valkyries are virgin warriors charged with the mission of selecting the most courageous warriors fallen on the battlefield and leading them into Valhalla. In the Ring cycle, there are nine of them: Brünnhilde, Grimgerde, Gerhilde, Helmwige, Ortlinde, Rossweisse, Schwertleite, Siegrune, and Waltraute. Presented as the daughters of Wotan and of different conquests, they appear together for the first time in Act III of Die Walküre. Only two of them have major roles: Waltraute and Brünnhilde, both of whom were the love children of Wotan and Erda.

In Germanic literature, Brynhildr is portrayed as a Valkyrie who an adept of magic and the art of healing. In the Ring cycle, Brünnhilde appears as Wotan’s favourite even though she has rebelled against her father. Wagner made Brünnhilde the only character who connects the three days of the Ring. Her psychological and spiritual development progresses in three stages: her realisation of the greatness of love in Die Walküre, her emotional growth from experiencing love in Siegfried, and her rise to tragic greatness through renunciation in Götterdämmerung.

Waltraute is arguably the closest to Brünnhilde. She flouts Wotan’s interdictions to go and find her sister on her rock. In Götterdämmerung, concerned by Valhalla’s decline, she tries to convince Brünnhilde to part with the accursed ring and return it to the Rhinemaidens. In her mind, it is the only way to re-establish the course of things and save the gods.

Children of the "wolf" in Norse and Germanic mythology—one of Wotan’s reincarnations originally known as Wälse—they are the descendants of a mortal woman and Wotan. These creatures have an instinctive sense of freedom and for Wotan they represent a means to win back the ring. 

Siegmund is the earthly son of Wotan and the twin brother of Sieglinde. His incestuous relationship with Sieglinde gives rise to the line of the Wälsung. He is the father of Siegfried and he possesses the sword Nothung. He was sired by Wotan to fulfil the task of retrieving the ring. Courageous and of rare nobility, he has inherited the positive qualities of his father without any of his faults, and places love before self-interest. The intrinsic heroism of the character is revealed when he refuses to abandon Sieglinde and to enter Valhalla, preferring to die with her.

Sieglinde is Siegmund’s twin sister. Abandoned as a child, she was forced to marry Hunding. In Die Walküre, Sieglinde possesses the valour of the heroes of mythical times. Despite her distress following the death of Siegmund, she gives birth to Siegfried with the assistance of Brünnhilde. Through the Valkyrie, Sieglinde realises that the salvation of the world depends on her maternity.

The son of Siegmund and Sieglinde, and the grandson of Wotan, Siegfried is one of the most significant characters in the Ring cycle. The embodiment of the quintessential hero, he symbolises hope. Wotan counts on him to retrieve the ring. More unsophisticated than cerebral, he acts on instinct. He has no conception of fear which enables him to confront Fafner and pass through the circle of fire on the rock on which Brünnhilde is imprisoned. Siegfried is also the archetypal Wagnerian character in search of his roots.